Syncope in the Young Adult and in the Athlete: Causes and Clinical Work-up to Exclude a Life-Threatening Cardiac Disease.

Syncope is defined as a transient loss of consciousness due to cerebral hypoperfusion, characterized by a rapid onset, short duration, and spontaneous complete recovery. It is usually a benign event, but sometimes it may represent the initial presentation of several cardiac disorders associated with sudden cardiac death during physical activity. A careful evaluation is essential particularly in young adults and in competitive athletes in order to exclude the presence of an underlying life-threatening cardiovascular disease. The present review analyzes the main non-cardiac and cardiac causes of syncope and the contribution of the available tools for differential diagnosis. Clinical work-up of the athlete with syncope occurring in extreme environments and management in terms of sports eligibility and disqualification are also discussed.

The role of physical activity in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors: an opinion paper from Italian Society of Cardiology-Emilia Romagna-Marche and SIC-Sport.

: Regular physical activity is a cornerstone in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) due to its positive effects in reducing several cardiovascular risk factors. Current guidelines on CVD suggest for healthy adults to perform at least 150 min/week of moderate intensity or 75 min/week of vigorous intensity aerobic physical activity. The current review explores the effects of physical activity on some risk factors, specifically: diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension and hyperuricemia. Physical activity induces an improvement in insulin sensitivity and in glucose control independently of weight loss, which may further contribute to ameliorate both diabetes-associated defects. The benefits of adherence to physical activity have recently proven to extend beyond surrogate markers of metabolic syndrome and diabetes by reducing hard endpoints such as mortality. In recent years, obesity has greatly increased in all countries. Weight losses in these patients have been associated with improvements in many cardiometabolic risk factors. Strategies against obesity included caloric restriction, however greater results have been obtained with association of diet and physical activity. Similarly, the beneficial effect of training on blood pressure via its action on sympathetic activity and on other factors such as improvement of endothelial function and reduction of oxidative stress can have played a role in preventing hypertension development in active subjects. The main international guidelines on prevention of CVD suggest to encourage and to increase physical activity to improve lipid pattern, hypertension and others cardiovascular risk factor. An active action is required to the National Society of Cardiology together with the Italian Society of Sports Cardiology to improve the prescription of organized physical activity in patients with CVD and/or cardiovascular risk factors.

[Syncope in the hyperbaric environment]. / Sincope in ambiente iperbarico.

The ever larger number of individuals who practice breath-hold diving suggests an increased need to understand the potential consequences of these sports activities. In this setting, syncope in hyperbaric environment represents a peculiar condition that goes beyond the common classifications of syncope. The pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie its etiology are complex and involve several reflexes that are triggered in these circumstances. Prevention of syncope in apnea divers requires a deep understanding of its pathophysiological mechanisms with inherent preventive measures on behalf of both cardiologists and sports cardiologists.

[Cardiovascular consequences of aerobic maneuvers]. / Le modificazioni cardiovascolari nel volo acrobatico.

Gravitational (G) stress during aerobatics flights, both military and civilian, can suddenly incapacitate pilots in agile and supermaneuverable aircrafts. High +Gz stress, up to +9Gz, has two different physiological consequences: the first is the drop in head-level blood pressure that is proportional to the G load; the other, slightly delayed, is the blood pooling in the lower part of the body and the abdomen. This blood shift results in a decreased return of venous blood to the heart, decreased cardiac output, and decreased blood pressure, leading to a likely loss of consciousness. The natural countermeasure against the effects of high G stress is the baroreceptor reflex. The human physiological tolerance to the gravito-inertial forces developed in flight operations can be increased by physiological and technological means.

[The heart in extreme sports: hyperbaric activity and microgravity]. / II cuore nello sport estremo: attività iperbarica e microgravità.

The study of the cardiovascular and respiratory modifications in extreme environments could be useful for the understanding of the adaptive mechanisms of the body in particular conditions. The knowledge of how different environmental conditions in terms of extreme pressure, temperature and gravity modify the neurovegetative and cardiovascular system could be useful in daily practice for hypobaric and hyperbaric sports.